An Island of Socialism in Sixteenth Century Europe;
Socialism in the Utopia of Sir Thomas More
Jason Hans Kleine,
Introduction to English Literature 110-200A,
November 20, 1993
Socialist ideals have recurred throughout
the history of literature; from Plato to Marx the elusive goal of
a perfect state has occupied some of the best minds in political
thought manifesting itself in literature. In the midst of this
historic tradition is the Utopia of More, a work which links the
utopias of the ancient with the utopias of the modern.
Hythloday's fantasy island draws heavily on the Greek Republic
and yet it influenced the revolutionary world of Marx. What
values do the Utopians hold which are in common with other
socialist utopian values, and which ideals of theirs are unique?
If one characteristic could be found which distinguishes a
socialist state from all others it would be the absence of social
and economic classes. In Plato's Republic there are only class
distinctions as there are separations between the Harmony of the
soul with the virtues; the philosopher, who lives a life of
contemplation, is closer to perfection than all else. In Marx's
state the proletariat rebels to once and for all abolish all
class distinctions amalgamating the bourgeoisie, through
necessity, into their own class creating a solitary class. This
is the most crucial and distinctive trait of a socialist utopia.
More's land lacks classes because everyone shares in the same work, everyone is equal, and everyone has the same rights. In Utopia there is an obligation for all to work a minimum of six hours everyday at whatever he is best at. All people spend time in the country working the land, as this is an agriculturally based society they must assure themselves of continued crop growth. In addition to creating the same conditions for everyone, this assures that they will have ample supplies to suppress the animal fear of want. All clothing is plain and simple, designed only for utility and practicality. More points out that if someone was dressed in 'finer' material, he would not be better protected against the cold, nor would he appear better dressed to the Utopians. In addition, to prevent any manner of ostentation, the Utopians exchange homes every ten years and eat together in mess halls. Hereditary distinctions do not exist because children are easily moved around from household to household, depending on which occupation he would like to learn. Since there is very little distinction in occupation, dress, lodging, riches, or use of free time, pride is almost non-existent in Utopia.
Like the communes of Leninist Russia, Utopia maintains collective farms. This is an example of the Utopian division of labour. Everyone learns the rudiments of agriculture, so that he may better serve the common good. "No one will have to do this hard work against his will for more than two years, but many of them ask to stay longer because they take a natural delight in farm life." [More 29] It is like this that the continuance of the Utopian food supply is assured ,without cutting off any of the people from the civilized life. With many other examples from the text it can be shown that the division of labour is always equal. This is echoed in Marx when he says, "From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs." But More's Utopia differs from Marx's concept in that the Utopians are required to work for six hours each day if they wish to be fed. It should be noted that in Utopia, should there be an excessive surplus of goods, then no one shall keep working without purpose, thus a holiday is declared.
It is true that there are separate groups in Utopia, magistrates, the prince, priests and the learned, but these groups by no means constitute a social or economic class. The syphogrants and the prince are elected autocrats whose power is derived from the people and who are removable if that power is abused. Although there are specialists in learning, these are not a sect isolated from the people, but the leaders in an institution in which all could participate. Learning is valued and respected, not as an indication of one's social standing but as a means of developing a man's specific capacities to the fullest. Of course there were bondsmen, but they were not a class anymore than modern convicts are a class, and their families had all the rights and respect of any other citizen.
In a classless society there is no exploitation of one group by another. This is of course something that More realized and was one of his reasons for suggesting a Utopia. More was most likely revolted by the luxury of sixteenth century Europe's ruling class. He saw that this luxury was a result of the poverty of the surrounding peasants and if poverty was to be excluded from Utopia then so must the ruling class' luxury. More saw that there was no benefit to the common good if all of the peasants work day and night, and the work only benefits a very small minority. This cannot be called the evolution of society. This idea of More's, that each and every worker must be able to see and enjoy the fruits of his labour and cannot be simply drudges, resembles Marx's view of labour.
For there to be no classes, More believes, there can be no pride. In Utopia pride is regarded as a social vice and children are taught this from their youngest age.As Hythloday says, "Men and animals alike are greedy and rapacious from fear of want. Only human pride glories in surpassing others in conspicuous consumption. For this kind of vice there is no room whatsoever in the Utopian way of life." [More 38] Take also the humourous example of the Anemolian ambassadors who come dressed in fancy clothing, covered in gold, only to be laughed at and mocked by the plain clothed Utopians, an example of the contempt for pride entrenched in the Utopian mind. Lack of pride serves to rid Utopia of classes and also to prevent social discord. A commonwealth without pride is like a single united family.
This along with an even division of labour clears the way for the pleasures of life. There can be no better good, in any time or society, than to strive for the maximum happiness for all, at as least cost or disadvantage to oneself and society. Because the Utopians are free from worrying about food, bills, and other necessities they can enjoy other aspects of life more fully. They take great pleasure in the physical pleasures such as fine dining, eating, drinking and merry making (though without alcohol). They do not enjoy any of this without music, a pleasure to the mind and body. For similar reasons, each house has a large garden in which much love and leisure time goes, they always strive to have the best garden, the most pleasing sanctuary; this is perhaps the only competition between families.
However, these bodily pleasures are not the raison d'etre for the Utopians. The pride that is missing from their paradise island is replaced by spiritual fulfillment. They find much enjoyment in both philosophy and religion; in the pursuit of philosophy they search for virtue, and in the pursuit of religion they contemplate the truth. The primary virtue that the Utopians have singled out is a natural reason, the reasons to which end man was created. To live according to nature is, for them, to be humanitarian. More mentions this when he says, "As nature bids us mutually to make our lives merry and delightful, so she also bids again and again not to destroy or diminish other people's pleasure in seeking our own." [More 48] Care for the fellow man is where More's Utopia supersedes that of Marx. Marx's vision was a world in which everyone was part of an economic family, More's was one in which they were this and the family is also united in love and charity. Religion provides great satisfaction for most of the Utopians. This high regard for religion is something unique to More's Utopia, neither Plato nor Marx accept religion. Indeed, King Utopia decreed that all citizens should believe in at least these two things: the immortality of the soul and the existence of rewards and punishments in the next life. In religion the Utopians find peace and contemplation of the truth. Like Plato of Athens, they regard as very holy and respected those persons who devote themselves to the contemplation of things above this mortal world. In their case the priests have given up the pleasures of this world in order to give to all humankind love and mercy from above.
The most efficient manner with which to rid the world of corruption and crime, advises More, is to put a great emphasis on education. Utopian education is entrusted to priests to prevent such vices. Since the Utopians have such a strong educational system, they need very few laws and the laws that do exist are subject only to the most obvious and easiest interpretation. Most sociologists would agree with More that education breeds morality and virtue, and so would Marx. Marx says that one of the key things of a true communist society, and one of the only ways it would come about, is if equal education would be given to all. Remember that in the sixteenth century, free and equal education for all would be a unique concept.
Almost any political scientist would agree that a proper government is always necessary for a state, in order to maintain internal peace and security. Utopia has a government in the form of magistrates and a prince who handle affairs of the country. This does not, as mentioned above, contradict the idea of communism, as the Utopian political body's sole purpose is to maintain the existing arrangements of society and to prevent idleness. The government is designed in the most responsible way. All matters must be considered for a day and can never be passed without three days of contemplation. It is a capital offense to consult together on public affairs outside the senate or the people's assembly. Raphael says of this, "They take care to deliberate wisely rather than speedily...considering the public good." [More 33] As would be expected, Marx also requires a form of government to hold his society together. For him, however, the government is only needed until the society has evolved to the point that it is no longer needed.
One problem with More's understanding of the utopian state is that he does not recognize, like Marx, that the state is an evolving entity. Utopia is a static and unchanging world allowing no place for growth and development. As a result, the Utopian commonwealth could only have come into being through some sort of miracle or divine power given to a prince, King Utopus. For this reason, More understood that his Utopia was not a possible solution, he had no idea of the historical process that might lead to a future socialism. Therefore, a better reading of More must be found, we must see that he is not offering a better world.
Plato's most famous proposition is his theory of forms, whereby certain entities on a higher plane are what define objects in our world of becoming. Plato wrote his Republic not as an alternative to the Greek city-state, but as a standard by which states can be judged, a form. More recognizes that advice to the state which is radically different and not necessarily benefiting the prince is not possible. He himself was finally executed for treason. Therefore, his island can be regarded only as a picture of the highest values, of how the world might be. Utopia is only put forward so that the audience will understand that Utopian values are really the fundamental values of human nature, and that the world is not a perfect place. It is as Hythloday says at the end of his tale, "I must confess that there are many things in the Utopian Commonwealth that I wish rather than expect to see among our citizens." [More 83] More does not, like Marx, call for a revolution, he is not a leader of the proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie. There is not yet formed a bourgeoisie to overthrow and there is no proletariat in sixteenth century England, simply expropriated peasants, servants turned adrift; they were still individuals going about their occupations rather than being a part of a huge machine industry. More is like his Utopians, simply contemplating what would be nice, a daydream maybe.
Thus Utopia is a world in which socialism is more than a monetary common good. The Utopians are also joined together in love for each other and humanity. Nevertheless, More's Utopia anticipates the characteristics of a modern classless society, though not proposing any means by which to obtain this blissful paradise. It is also a book of criticism of the extravagances of the ruling class at the expense of the lower peoples. His work is often used as a sort of inspiration for revolutionaries, but More sees more than just this change of state He sees a moral revolution, whereby institutional values are replaced by true Christian morality and more humane values. As much as Utopia does not represent communism, it does not promote revolution. It is only a satire of More's England, In effect saying, "If the Utopians can create such a good and just state with only natural reason to guide them, why can't England, belonging to a religion which promotes goodness and brotherly love, come up with something at least as good?" This then is More's wish, a Christian socialism.
Works Cited
More, Thomas. Utopia, ed. And trans. H.V.S. Ogden. AHM Publishing Corporation, Illinois, 1949