UTOPIA by SIR THOMAS MORE

BOOK II: OF THEIR MILITARY DISCIPLINE

THEY detest war as a very brutal thing; and which, to the reproach
of human nature, is more practised by men than by any sort of
beasts. They, in opposition to the sentiments of almost all other
nations, think that there is nothing more inglorious than that
glory that is gained by war. And therefore though they accustom
themselves daily to military exercises and the discipline of war--
in which not only their men but their women likewise are trained
up, that in cases of necessity they may not be quite useless--yet
they do not rashly engage in war, unless it be either to defend
themselves, or their friends, from any unjust aggressors; or out
of good-nature or in compassion assist an oppressed nation in
shaking off the yoke of tyranny. They indeed help their friends,
not only in defensive, but also in offensive wars; but they never
do that unless they had been consulted before the breach was made,
and being satisfied with the grounds on which they went, they had
found that all demands of reparation were rejected, so that a war
was unavoidable. This they think to be not only just, when one
neighbor makes an inroad on another, by public order, and carry
away the spoils; but when the merchants of one country are
oppressed in another, either under pretence of some unjust laws,
or by the perverse wresting of good ones. This they count a juster
cause of war than the other, because those injuries are done under
some color of laws.

This was the only ground of that war in which they engaged with
the Nephelogetes against the Aleopolitanes, a little before our
time; for the merchants of the former having, as they thought, met
with great injustice among the latter, which, whether it was in
itself right or wrong, drew on a terrible war, in which many of
their neighbors were engaged; and their keenness in carrying it on
being supported by their strength in maintaining it, it not only
shook some very flourishing States, and very much afflicted
others, but after a series of much mischief ended in the entire
conquest and slavery of the Aleopolitanes, who though before the
war they were in all respects much superior to the Nephelogetes,
were yet subdued; but though the Utopians had assisted them in the
war, yet they pretended to no share of the spoil.

But though they so vigorously assist their friends in obtaining
reparation for the injuries they have received in affairs of this
nature, yet if any such frauds were committed against themselves,
provided no violence was done to their persons, they would only on
their being refused satisfaction forbear trading with such a
people. This is not because they consider their neighbors more
than their own citizens; but since their neighbors trade everyone
upon his own stock, fraud is a more sensible injury to them than
it is to the Utopians, among whom the public in such a case only
suffers. As they expect nothing in return for the merchandise they
export but that in which they so much abound, and is of little use
to them, the loss does not much affect them; they think therefore
it would be too severe to revenge a loss attended with so little
inconvenience, either to their lives or their subsistence, with
the death of many persons; but if any of their people is either
killed or wounded wrongfully, whether it be done by public
authority or only by private men, as soon as they hear of it they
send ambassadors, and demand that the guilty persons may be
delivered up to them; and if that is denied, they declare war; but
if it be complied with, the offenders are condemned either to
death or slavery.

They would be both troubled and ashamed of a bloody victory over
their enemies, and think it would be as foolish a purchase as to
buy the most valuable goods at too high a rate. And in no victory
do they glory so much as in that which is gained by dexterity and
good conduct, without bloodshed. In such cases they appoint public
triumphs, and erect trophies to the honor of those who have
succeeded; for then do they reckon that a man acts suitably to his
nature when he conquers his enemy in such a way as that no other
creature but a man could be capable of, and that is by the
strength of his understanding. Bears, lions, boars, wolves, and
dogs, and all other animals employ their bodily force one against
another, in which as many of them are superior to men, both in
strength and fierceness, so they are all subdued by his reason and
understanding.

The only design of the Utopians in war is to obtain that by force,
which if it had been granted them in time would have prevented the
war; or if that cannot be done, to take so severe a revenge on
those that have injured them that they may be terrified from doing
the like for the time to come. By these ends they measure all
their designs, and manage them so that it is visible that the
appetite of fame or vainglory does not work so much on them as a
just care of their own security.

As soon as they declare war, they take care to have a great many
schedules, that are sealed with their common seal, affixed in the
most conspicuous places of their enemies' country. This is carried
secretly, and done in many places all at once. In these they
promise great rewards to such as shall kill the prince, and lesser
in proportion to such as shall kill any other persons, who are
those on whom, next to the prince himself, they cast the chief
balance of the war. And they double the sum to him that, instead
of killing the person so marked out, shall take him alive and put
him in their hands. They offer not only indemnity, but rewards, to
such of the persons themselves that are so marked, if they will
act against their countrymen; by this means those that are named
in their schedules become not only distrustful of their fellow-
citizens but are jealous of one another, and are much distracted
by fear and danger; for it has often fallen out that many of them,
and even the Prince himself, have been betrayed by those in whom
they have trusted most; for the rewards that the Utopians offer
are so unmeasurably great, that there is no sort of crime to which
men cannot be drawn by them. They consider the risk that those run
who undertake such services, and offer a recompense proportioned
to the danger; not only a vast deal of gold, but great revenues in
lands, that lie among other nations that are their friends, where
they may go and enjoy them very securely; and they observe the
promises they make of this kind most religiously.

They very much approve of this way of corrupting their enemies,
though it appears to others to be base and cruel; but they look on
it as a wise course, to make an end of what would be otherwise a
long war, without so much as hazarding one battle to decide it.
They think it likewise an act of mercy and love to mankind to
prevent the great slaughter of those that must otherwise be killed
in the progress of the war, both on their own side and on that of
their enemies, by the death of a few that are most guilty; and
that in so doing they are kind even to their enemies, and pity
them no less than their own people, as knowing that the greater
part of them do not engage in the, war of their own accord, but
are driven into it by the passions of their prince.

If this method does not succeed with them, then they sow seeds of
contention among their enemies, and animate the prince's brother,
or some of the nobility, to aspire to the crown. If they cannot
disunite them by domestic broils, then they engage their neighbors
against them, and make them set on foot some old pretensions,
which are never wanting to princes when they have occasion for
them. These they plentifully supply with money, though but very
sparingly with any auxiliary troops: for they are so tender of
their own people, that they would not willingly exchange one of
them, even with the prince of their enemies' country.

But as they keep their gold and silver only for such an occasion,
so when that offers itself they easily part with it, since it
would be no inconvenience to them though they should reserve
nothing of it to themselves. For besides the wealth that they have
among them at home, they have a vast treasure abroad, many nations
round about them being deep in their debt: so that they hire
soldiers from all places for carrying on their wars, but chiefly
from the Zapolets, who live 500 miles east of Utopia. They are a
rude, wild, and fierce nation, who delight in the woods and rocks,
among which they were born and bred up. They are hardened both
against heat, cold, and labor, and know nothing of the delicacies
of life. They do not apply themselves to agriculture, nor do they
care either for their houses or their clothes. Cattle is all that
they look after; and for the greatest part they live either by
hunting, or upon rapine; and are made, as it were, only for war.
They watch all opportunities of engaging in it, and very readily
embrace such as are offered them. Great numbers of them will
frequently go out, and offer themselves for a very low pay, to
serve any that will employ them: they know none of the arts of
life, but those that lead to the taking it away; they serve those
that hire them, both with much courage and great fidelity; but
will not engage to serve for any determined time, and agree upon
such terms, that the next day they may go over to the enemies of
those whom they serve, if they offer them a greater encouragement:
and will perhaps return to them the day after that, upon a higher
advance of their pay.

There are few wars in which they make not a considerable part of
the armies of both sides: so it often falls out that they who are
related, and were hired in the same country, and so have lived
long and familiarly together, forgetting both their relations and
former friendship, kill one another upon no other consideration
than that of being hired to it for a little money, by princes of
different interests; and such a regard have they for money, that
they are easily wrought on by the difference of one penny a day to
change sides. So entirely does their avarice influence them; and
yet this money, which they value so highly, is of little use to
them; for what they purchase thus with their blood, they quickly
waste on luxury, which among them is but of a poor and miserable
form.

This nation serves the Utopians against all people whatsoever, for
they pay higher than any other. The Utopians hold this for a
maxim, that as they seek out the best sort of men for their own
use at home, so they make use of this worst sort of men for the
consumption of war, and therefore they hire them with the offers
of vast rewards, to expose themselves to all sorts of hazards, out
of which the greater part never returns to claim their promises.
Yet they make them good most religiously to such as escape. This
animates them to adventure again, whenever there is occasion for
it; for the Utopians are not at all troubled how many of these
happen to be killed, and reckon it a service done to mankind if
they could be a means to deliver the world from such a lewd and
vicious sort of people; that seem to have run together as to the
drain of human nature. Next to these they are served in their wars
with those upon whose account they undertake them, and with the
auxiliary troops of their other friends, to whom they join a few
of their own people, and send some men of eminent and approved
virtue to command in chief. There are two sent with him, who
during his command are but private men, but the first is to
succeed him if he should happen to be either killed or taken; and
in case of the like misfortune to him, the third comes in his
place; and thus they provide against ill events, that such
accidents as may befall their generals may not endanger their
armies.

When they draw out troops of their own people, they take such out
of every city as freely offer themselves, for none are forced to
go against their wills, since they think that if any man is
pressed that wants courage, he will not only act faintly, but by
his cowardice dishearten others. But if an invasion is made on
their country they make use of such men, if they have good bodies,
though they are not brave; and either put them aboard their ships
or place them on the walls of their towns, that being so posted
they may find no opportunity of flying away; and thus either
shame, the heat of action, or the impossibility of flying, bears
down their cowardice; they often make a virtue of necessity and
behave themselves well, because nothing else is left them. But as
they force no man to go into any foreign war against his will, so
they do not hinder those women who are willing to go along with
their husbands; on the contrary, they encourage and praise them,
and they stand often next their husbands in the front of the army.
They also place together those who are related, parents and
children, kindred, and those that are mutually allied, near one
another; that those whom nature has inspired with the greatest
zeal for assisting one another, may be the nearest and readiest to
do it; and it is matter of great reproach if husband or wife
survive one another, or if a child survives his parents, and
therefore when they come to be engaged in action they continue to
fight to the last man, if their enemies stand before them.

And as they use all prudent methods to avoid the endangering their
own men, and if it is possible let all the action and danger fall
upon the troops that they hire, so if it becomes necessary for
themselves to engage, they then charge with as much courage as
they avoided it before with prudence: nor is it a fierce charge at
first, but it increases by degrees; and as they continue in
action, they grow more obstinate and press harder upon the enemy,
insomuch that they will much sooner die than give ground; for the
certainty that their children will be well looked after when they
are dead, frees them from all that anxiety concerning them which
often masters men of great courage; and thus they are animated by
a noble and invincible resolution. Their skill in military affairs
increases their courage; and the wise sentiments which, according
to the laws of their country, are instilled into them in their
education, give additional vigor to their minds: for as they do
not undervalue life so as prodigally to throw it away, they are
not so indecently fond of it as to preserve it by base and
unbecoming methods. In the greatest heat of action, the bravest of
their youth, who have devoted themselves to that service, single
out the general of their enemies, set on him either openly or by
ambuscade, pursue him everywhere, and when spent and wearied out,
are relieved by others, who never give over the pursuit; either
attacking him with close weapons when they can get near him, or
with those which wound at a distance, when others get in between
them; so that unless he secures himself by flight, they seldom
fail at last to kill or to take him prisoner.

When they have obtained a victory, they kill as few as possible,
and are much more bent on taking many prisoners than on killing
those that fly before them; nor do they ever let their men so
loose in the pursuit of their enemies, as not to retain an entire
body still in order; so that if they have been forced to engage
the last of their battalions before they could gain the day, they
will rather let their enemies all escape than pursue them, when
their own army is in disorder; remembering well what has often
fallen out to themselves, that when the main body of their army
has been quite defeated and broken, when their enemies imagining
the victory obtained, have let themselves loose into an irregular
pursuit, a few of them that lay for a reserve, waiting a fit
opportunity, have fallen on them in their chase, and when
straggling in disorder and apprehensive of no danger, but counting
the day their own, have turned the whole action, and wrestling out
of their hands a victory that seemed certain and undoubted, while
the vanquished have suddenly become victorious.

It is hard to tell whether they are more dexterous in laying or
avoiding ambushes. They sometimes seem to fly when it is far from
their thoughts; and when they intend to give ground, they do it so
that it is very hard to find out their design. If they see they
are ill posted, or are like to be overpowered by numbers, they
then either march off in the night with great silence, or by some
stratagem delude their enemies: if they retire in the daytime,
they do it in such order, that it is no less dangerous to fall
upon them in a retreat than in a march. They fortify their camps
with a deep and large trench, and throw up the earth that is dug
out of it for a wall; nor do they employ only their slaves in
this, but the whole army works at it, except those that are then
upon the guard; so that when so many hands are at work, a great
line and a strong fortification are finished in so short a time
that it is scarce credible. Their armor is very strong for
defence, and yet is not so heavy as to make them uneasy in their
marches; they can even swim with it. All that are trained up to
war practice swimming. Both horse and foot make great use of
arrows, and are very expert. They have no swords, but fight with a
pole-axe that is both sharp and heavy, by which they thrust or
strike down an enemy. They are very good at finding out warlike
machines, and disguise them so well, that the enemy does not
perceive them till he feels the use of them; so that he cannot
prepare such a defence as would render them useless; the chief
consideration had in the making them is that they may be easily
carried and managed.

If they agree to a truce, they observe it so religiously that no
provocations will make them break it. They never lay their
enemies' country waste nor burn their corn, and even in their
marches they take all possible care that neither horse nor foot
may tread it down, for they do not know but that they may have use
for it-themselves. They hurt no man whom they find disarmed,
unless he is a spy. When a town is surrendered to them, they take
it into their protection; and when they carry a place by storm,
they never plunder it, but put those only to the sword that
opposed the rendering of it up, and make the rest of the garrison
slaves, but for the other inhabitants, they do them no hurt; and
if any of them had advised a surrender, they give them good
rewards out of the estates of those that they condemn, and
distribute the rest among their auxiliary troops, but they
themselves take no share of the spoil.

When a war is ended, they do not oblige their friends to reimburse
their expenses; but they obtain them of the conquered, either in
money, which they keep for the next occasion, or in lands, out of
which a constant revenue is to be paid them; by many increases,
the revenue which they draw out from several countries on such
occasions, is now risen to above 700,000 ducats a year. They send
some of their own people to receive these revenues, who have
orders to live magnificently, and like princes, by which means
they consume much of it upon the place; and either bring over the
rest to Utopia, or lend it to that nation in which it lies. This
they most commonly do, unless some great occasion, which falls out
but very seldom, should oblige them to call for it all. It is out
of these lands that they assign rewards to such as they encourage
to adventure on desperate attempts. If any prince that engages in
war with them is making preparations for invading their country,
they prevent him, and make his country the seat of the war; for
they do not willingly suffer any war to break in upon their
island; and if that should happen, they would only defend
themselves by their own people, but would not call for auxiliary
troops to their assistance.


1901. New York: Ideal Commonwealths. P.F. Collier & Son. The
Colonial Press. This book is in the public domain, released
July 1993 by the Internet Wiretap. Prepared by Kirk Crady
(kcrady@polaris.cv.nrao.edu) from scanner output provided by
Internet Wiretap.

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